Harmonic Oscillator Spectrum and Eigenstates

Quantum Mechanics A

Schrödinger Equation The most fundamental equation of quantum mechanics; given a Hamiltonian Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \mathcal{H}} , it describes how a state Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle |\Psi\rangle} evolves in time.

Physical Basis of Quantum Mechanics

Basic Concepts and Theory of Motion UV Catastrophe (Black-Body Radiation) Photoelectric Effect Stability of Matter Double Slit Experiment Stern-Gerlach Experiment The Principle of Complementarity The Correspondence Principle The Philosophy of Quantum Theory

Schrödinger Equation

Brief Derivation of Schrödinger Equation Relation Between the Wave Function and Probability Density Stationary States Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle Some Consequences of the Uncertainty Principle

Operators, Eigenfunctions, and Symmetry

Linear Vector Spaces and Operators Commutation Relations and Simultaneous Eigenvalues The Schrödinger Equation in Dirac Notation Transformations of Operators and Symmetry Time Evolution of Expectation Values and Ehrenfest's Theorem

Motion in One Dimension

One-Dimensional Bound States Oscillation Theorem The Dirac Delta Function Potential Scattering States, Transmission and Reflection Motion in a Periodic Potential Summary of One-Dimensional Systems

Discrete Eigenvalues and Bound States

Harmonic Oscillator Spectrum and Eigenstates Analytical Method for Solving the Simple Harmonic Oscillator Coherent States Charged Particles in an Electromagnetic Field WKB Approximation

Time Evolution and the Pictures of Quantum Mechanics

The Heisenberg Picture: Equations of Motion for Operators The Interaction Picture The Virial Theorem

Angular Momentum

Commutation Relations Angular Momentum as a Generator of Rotations in 3D Spherical Coordinates Eigenvalue Quantization Orbital Angular Momentum Eigenfunctions

Central Forces

General Formalism Free Particle in Spherical Coordinates Spherical Well Isotropic Harmonic Oscillator Hydrogen Atom WKB in Spherical Coordinates

The Path Integral Formulation of Quantum Mechanics

Feynman Path Integrals The Free-Particle Propagator Propagator for the Harmonic Oscillator

Continuous Eigenvalues and Collision Theory

Differential Cross Section and the Green's Function Formulation of Scattering Central Potential Scattering and Phase Shifts Coulomb Potential Scattering

1-D harmonic oscillator is a particle moving under the harmonic oscillator potential with the form: Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle V(x)=\frac{1}{2}k x^2} where Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle k\!} is the "spring constant".

We can see that Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle V(x)\rightarrow \infty } as Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle x\rightarrow \pm\infty } , therefore, the wave functions must vanish at infinity for any value of the energy. Consequently, all stationary states are bound, the energy spectrum is discrete and non-degenerate. Furthermore, because the potential is an even function, the parity operator commutes with Hamiltonian, hence the wave functions will be even or odd.

The energy spectrum and the energy eigenstates can be found by either algebraic method using raising and lowering operators or by analytic method.

The Hamiltonian of a 1-D harmonic oscillator is:

Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle H=-\frac{\hbar^2}{2m}\frac{\partial^2}{\partial x^2}+\frac{1}{2}k x^2 }

Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle H=-\frac{\hbar^2}{2m}\frac{\partial^2}{\partial x^2}+\frac{1}{2}m\omega^2 x^2} , where Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \omega \!} is the natural frequency of the oscillator, and Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \omega = \sqrt{\frac{k}{m}}} .

It will be easy to memorize how to construct lowering and raising operator by factorizing and rewriting as follows: Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle H=\hbar\omega\left(-\frac{\hbar}{2m\omega}\frac{\partial^2}{\partial x^2}+\frac{1}{2\hbar}m\omega x^2\right) }

Then we define:

Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \hat{a}=\sqrt{\frac{m\omega}{2\hbar}}x+\sqrt{\frac{\hbar}{2m\omega}}\frac{d}{dx}} as the lowering operator, and
Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \hat{a}^{\dagger}=\sqrt{\frac{m\omega}{2\hbar}}x-\sqrt{\frac{\hbar}{2m\omega}}\frac{d}{dx}} as the raising operator. The Hamiltonian can now be written as:

Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle H=\hbar\omega\left(\hat{a}^{\dagger}\hat{a}+\frac{1}{2}\right)}

One way to distinguish Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \hat{a}\!} from Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \hat{a}^{\dagger}} is to remember that the ground state wave function is a Gaussian function and Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \hat{a}\!} will annihilate this state. Given the lowering and raising operators, the following commutation relation can easily be shown: Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle [\hat{a},\hat{a}^{\dagger}]=1.}

Now let Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \hat{a}\hat{a}^{\dagger} = \hat{n}} , and write the eigenstate equation of Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \hat{n}} as Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \hat{n} |n\rangle = n |n\rangle } .

Now, let's see how Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \hat{a}\!} and Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \hat{a}^{\dagger}\!} act on an energy eigenstate Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle |\Psi\rangle\!} : For Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \hat{a}\!} :

Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle H\hat{a} |\Psi\rangle = \left(E-\hbar\omega\right)|\Psi\rangle }

This means that Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \hat{a} |\Psi\rangle} is also an energy eigenstate but corresponding to a lower energy, Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle E-\hbar\omega\!} . Therefore Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \hat{a}\!} is called the lowering operator.

Similarly,

Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle H\hat{a}^{\dagger}|\Psi\rangle = \left(E+\hbar\omega\right)|\Psi\rangle }

and so Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \hat{a}^{\dagger}\!} is called the raising operator.

So, starting from any energy eigenstates, we can construct all other energy eigenstates by applying Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \hat{a}\!} or Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \hat{a}^{\dagger}\!} repeatedly. Although there is no limit to the number of times we can apply Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \hat{a}^{\dagger}\!} , there is a limit to the number of times we can apply Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \hat{a}\!} . The process of lowering energy must stop at some point, since Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle E>0} . For the eigenstate of lowest energy Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle |\Psi_0\rangle} (the ground state), we have:

Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \hat{a}|\Psi_0\rangle=0\!}
Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \Rightarrow \left( \sqrt{\frac{m\omega}{2\hbar}}x+\sqrt{\frac{\hbar}{2m\omega}}\frac{d}{dx}\right) \Psi_0(x)=0\!}

This is a first order ordinary differential equation, which can be easily solved, and the result is as follows:

Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \Psi_0(x)=A e^{-\frac{m\omega}{2\hbar}x^2}}

where Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle A\!} is a constant, which can be determined from the normalization condition:

Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle 1=\int_{-\infty}^{\infty}|\Psi_0(x)|^2 dx = \int_{-\infty}^{\infty}dx A^2 e^{-\frac{m\omega}{\hbar}x^2}= A^2\sqrt{\frac{\pi\hbar}{m\omega}}\Rightarrow A=\left(\frac{m\omega}{\pi\hbar}\right)^{\frac{1}{4}}}

Thus, normalized ground state wave function is:

Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \Psi_0(x)=\left(\frac{m\omega}{\pi\hbar}\right)^{\frac{1}{4}}e^{-\frac{m\omega}{2\hbar}x^2}}

The energy spectrum of 1-D harmonic oscillator is:

Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \ {E}_{n}=\hbar\omega\left(n+\frac{1}{2}\right); n=0,1,2,\ldots}

It is remarkable that the ground state energy of a quantum oscillator is not zero, instead it is Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}\hbar\omega } . This significant feature is important in modern physics, such as quantum fluctuation and vacuum energy.

Excited state wave function

Energy eigenstates with Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle E>0\!} are called excited states. By applying Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle a^{\dagger}} repeatedly and after normalization process we obtain the wave function for excited states as follows:

Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle |\Psi_n\rangle=\frac{(\hat{a}^{\dagger})^n}{\sqrt{n!}}|\Psi_0\rangle\!}

In the position representation

Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \langle x|\Psi_n\rangle=\left(\frac{m\omega}{\pi\hbar}\right)^{\frac{1}{4}}\frac{1}{\sqrt{2^nn!}}H_n\left(\sqrt{\frac{m\omega}{\hbar}}x\right)e^{-\frac{m\omega}{2\hbar}x^2}\!}

where Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle H_n(\xi)=(-1)^n e^{\xi^2}\frac{d^n}{d\xi^n}e^{-\xi^2}} is the Hermite polynomial.

In the momentum representation the solution looks similar. The raising and lowering operators are defined:

${\hat {a}}^{\dagger }=i{\sqrt {\frac {m\omega \hbar }{2}}}{\frac {d}{dp}}-{\frac {ip}{\sqrt {2m\omega \hbar }}}$

${\hat {a}}=i{\sqrt {\frac {m\omega \hbar }{2}}}{\frac {d}{dp}}+{\frac {ip}{\sqrt {2m\omega \hbar }}}$

The ground state is found by requiring the lowering operator acting on a state to annihilate it:

$\left(i{\sqrt {\frac {m\omega \hbar }{2}}}{\frac {d}{dp}}+{\frac {ip}{\sqrt {2m\omega \hbar }}}\right)\Psi _{0}(p)=0$

We obtain the ground state by solving the differential equation and normalizing it: $\Psi _{0}(p)={\frac {1}{(m\omega \hbar \pi )^{1/4}}}e^{\frac {-p^{2}}{2m\omega \hbar }}$

Applying the raising operator repeatedly to this ground state and applying the correct additional normalization factor produces all of the excited states. In terms of the Hermite polynomials these are:

$\Psi _{n}(p)={\frac {(-i)^{n}}{\sqrt {2^{n}n!}}}\left({\frac {1}{\pi m\omega \hbar }}\right)^{\frac {1}{4}}H_{n}\left({\frac {p}{\sqrt {m\omega \hbar }}}\right)e^{\frac {-p^{2}}{2m\omega \hbar }}$

Note the appearance of the imaginary unit $i$ which is not present in the position representation of these states. This solution can also be obtained by performing Fourier transformation upon the result in position representation, since momentum and position are conjugate variables.

Notice that there are two parts in the wave function of excited states: the Gaussian function part and the Hermite polynomial part. The former accounts for the behavior of the wave function at long distances, while the later accounts for the behavior of the wave function at short distance and the number of nodes of the wave function.

The Quantum Harmonic Oscillator is of particular interest as a problem due to the fact that similar equations show up for many different applications. For example, the QHO appears when considering atomic vibrations, quantum LC circuits, and phonon modes in solids.

Problems on Harmonic oscillator

Problem 1

Problem 2

A nice problem concerning proof of the Virial Theorem in the case of the QHO

External Link

More details about the normalization process can be found in Griffiths, Introduction to Quantum Mechanics, 2nd Ed. pg 47